Anatomy and Physiology II - Lecture Objectives

 The following is an outline of the major topics to be covered this semester. 
Additional terms and concepts will be covered in lecture and lab.

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Blood

List the functions of blood
Describe the composition and physical characteristics of whole blood
Describe plasma, listing its major constituents and their function
Differentiate among erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
Define and briefly describe hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis)
Describe the structure and function of erythrocytes
Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin
Describe the destruction of erythrocytes and explain how hemoglobin components are recycled
Define bilirubin and state its relationship to hemoglobin
Describe the structure and function of platelets
Describe the phases of hemostasis: vascular spasm, platelet plug formation and coagulation
Compare and contrast the coagulation pathways (intrinsic and extrinsic)
Describe clot retraction and fibrinolysis
Define thrombus, embolus, anticoagulant
 

Lymphatic System

List the components of the lymphatic system and describe their functions
Describe the formation of lymph and the structure of the lymphatic vessels
Explain how lymphatic circulation is maintained
Define lymphedema
Discuss the location, structure and function of the lymph nodes
Describe the structure and function of the spleen, thymus and tonsils
Define MALT and list several components of MALT

Immune System

Define pathogen, resistance and immunity
Distinguish between nonspecific (innate) and specific (adaptive) defenses 
Explain how the skin and mucous membranes provide the body's first line of defense
Explain the importance of phagocytosis and natural killer cells in nonspecific defense
Discuss the roles of antimicrobial proteins (interferon and complement), inflammation, and fever in nonspecific resistance to disease

List three unique characteristics of the specific (adaptive) immune response
Define antigen, antigenic determinant, and antibody
Distinguish between antibody-mediated (humoral) immunity and cell-mediated immunity
Compare and contrast the origin, maturation process, and function of B and T lymphocytes
Define immunocompetence and self-tolerance
Discuss the mechanisms associated with autoimmune diseases
Describe the mechanism of B cell activation and the differentiation of B cells into plasma cells
Describe the structure of an antibody molecule (monomer)
Briefly describe the mechanism of antibody action
Briefly explain the mechanisms of T cell activation
Explain the role of antigen-presenting cells in immunity
Briefly describe the types of T cells and the role played by each in the immune response
Discuss the primary and secondary immune responses
Discuss the different types of acquired immunity (passive and active; natural and artificial)


Cardiovascular System - Heart Physiology

Review the anatomy of the human heart (covered in lab)
Review the route of blood flow through the systemic and pulmonary circuits
Describe the microscopic anatomy of cardiac muscle tissue
Describe the physiology of cardiac muscle contraction, comparing autorhythmic fibers and contractile fibers
Name the components of the conduction system, and trace the conduction pathway
Describe the role of the cardiac centers (medulla oblongata) in modifying the basic rhythm
Review the deflection waves of an ECK (EKG) as covered in lab
Briefly describe the following arrhythmias: fibrillation, ectopic focus and heart block
Define systole and diastole and relate these to the normal heartbeat and the cardiac cycle
Describe the timing and events of the cardiac cycle
Describe the source and significance of the heart sounds; define murmur
Define heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output; discuss their relationship
List and describe the factors affecting stroke volume: preload, contractility, afterload
List and describe the factors affecting heart rate


Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels

Describe the three layers (tunics) that typically form the wall of a blood vessel
Compare and contrast the structure and function of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins
Define vasoconstriction and vasodilation
Differentiate between elastic and muscular arteries
Differentiate among fenestrated, continuous and sinusoidal capillaries (sinusoids)
Describe the process of capillary exchange and the major pressures involved
Discuss the relationship between blood flow velocity and total cross-sectional area in various blood vessels


Cardiovascular System - Physiology of Circulation

Define blood flow, blood pressure and resistance; explain the relationship between these factors
Describe the local regulation of blood flow through each tissue (autoregulation)
Describe the factors responsible for the maintenance of blood pressure:
  cardiac output, peripheral resistance, and blood volume
Describe the neural mechanisms that regulate blood pressure: baroreceptors, vasomotor center, vasomotor fibers
Describe the hormonal mechanisms that regulate blood pressure: adrenal medulla hormones, angiotensin II, aldosterone, atrial natriuretic hormone, antidiuretic hormone


Respiratory System

List and briefly describe the four processes collectively called respiration
Review the structure and function of the organs of the respiratory system (done in lab)
Describe Boyle's Law and explain how it relates to lung function
Describe the events that lead to inspiration and expiration (pressure and volume changes)
Identify and describe the actions of the muscles involved in both quiet and forced inspiration
Explain why quiet expiration is a passive process
Identify and describe the actions of the muscles involved in forced expiration
Explain and compare the various lung volumes and capacities
Describe the role of surfactant and intrapleural pressure in preventing lung collapse
Define compliance and describe factors that affect it
Describe the structure and function of the respiratory membrane
Describe partial pressure in a gas mixture
Describe how oxygen is transported in the blood and explain the influence of PO₂ on hemoglobin saturation
Explain how oxygen loading and unloading are affected by changes in temperature, pH & PCO₂
Describe how CO2 is transported in the blood and describe the chloride shift 
Describe the neural controls of respiration: medullary respiratory centers (VRG & DRG) and the pontine respiratory centers
Identify the central and peripheral chemoreceptors and describe how they help in the regulation of respiratory rate and depth
Explain how blood PO₂, PCO₂, and pH influence the rate and depth of breathing
Discuss the following respiratory disorders: COPD (chronic bronchitis, emphysema) and asthma


Digestive System

List and describe the functions of the digestive system
Describe the general histology of the gastrointestinal tract
Describe digestion in the mouth (mechanical and chemical)
Describe the structure of a tooth and compare deciduous and permanent dentitions
Describe the location of the salivary glands and the composition and function of saliva
Describe the phases of swallowing (deglutition)
Describe the structure and function of the esophagus
Describe the structure and functions of the stomach
List the cell types in the stomach mucosa and their secretory products
Describe the mechanisms that regulate gastric secretion and differentiate among the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases
Identify the regions of the small intestine
Describe how bile and pancreatic juice are delivered to the small intestine
Describe the structure and function of the intestinal villi, the microvilli and the intestinal crypts
Describe the location and action of brush border enzymes
Describe the types of intestinal motility (peristalsis and segmentation)
Describe the function of local hormones produced by the stomach and small intestine
Describe the structure and function of the pancreas
Describe the structure of the liver and trace the flow of blood and bile through a liver lobule
List the functions of the liver and gall bladder
State the roles of pancreatic juice and bile in digestion
Describe the anatomical relationship among the liver, gallbladder, hepatic ducts, common hepatic duct, cystic duct, common bile duct, pancreatic duct
List the enzymes involved in chemical digestion; name the foodstuffs on which they act and the end products of protein, fat, and carbohydrate digestion
Describe the process of absorption of digested foodstuffs that occur in the small intestine
Describe the structure and functions of the large intestine
Describe the defecation reflex


Renal Physiology

Review the structure of the kidney and of the nephron (done in lab)
Review blood supply to and from the nephrons
Describe the structure of the filtration membrane
Describe the components of the glomerular apparatus and give the functions of the granular cells and the macula densa
Describe the forces (pressures) that promote or oppose glomerular filtration
Compare the intrinsic controls (autoregulation) of glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
Briefly explain the purpose of the extrinsic controls of glomerular filtration rate
Compare and contrast tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion
Define transport maximum
Describe the transport mechanisms for water and solute reabsorption in each segment of the nephron tubule 
List the hormones involved in calcium, sodium, and water reabsorption
Discuss the roles of the kidneys in acid-base balance and fluid and electrolyte balance
Explain formation of dilute versus concentrated urine


Reproductive Physiology  

Discuss the determination of genetic sex and prenatal development of male and female structures
Discuss the role of the sustentacular (Sertoli) cells in the blood-testis barrier
Define puberty and secondary sexual characteristics
Describe the hormonal control of testicular functions: the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
Describe the functions of LH, FSH, testosterone and inhibin in the male
Outline the events of spermatogenesis

Describe the process of oogenesis and compare it to spermatogenesis
Describe the hormonal control of ovarian functions: hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
Describe the functions of LH, FSH, estrogen, progesterone and inhibin in the female
Describe the ovarian cycle phases, and relate them to events of oogenesis              
Outline the major events of each phase of the uterine (menstrual) cycle and correlate them with the events of the ovarian cycle
List several signs of ovulation 
Briefly describe implantation 
Explain the source and role of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Describe the effects of aging on the reproductive systems
Define menarche and menopause
Describe some common forms of birth control

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